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ACTIONS ON AIR QUALITYPolicies 1 indoor air pollution, 2 vehicle emissions, 3 public and non-motorized transport, 4 industrial emissions, 5 open burning of waste, and 6 national air quality standards and regulations. World maps indicating where all countries are in regard to the six categories are provided in the global snapshot at the end of this report. Progress has been made across these categories in different countries and there are illustrative case studies demonstrating good practices to be found across all geographic regions. When analysing the air quality policies and programmes for the 194 countries a few crosscutting challenges were distilled ineffective implementation and enforcement of existing policies and regulations; limited cooperation between national and city administration; the universal need for monitoring and assessment; and the importance of behavioural change and public participation through awareness and stakeholder involvement. This report takes stock of the progress being made globally in introducing ten key policy actions to improve indoor and outdoor air quality. 1 Details can be found at http//www.unep.org/transport/airquality/Air Quality Policy Actions World-WideAir quality standards Laws rather it indicates that significant efforts are underway to expand public transport. 65 out of the 194 countries have made significant investments in expanding and / or upgrading public transport systems in the past five years. In the last five years major investments in public transport were carried out in highly urbanised countries in South America and Europe. In addition, countries with megacities - cities with more than 10 million inhabitants - recorded increased investments in public transport. For countries experiencing rapid urbanisation rates, investments in public transport were meager in the last five years, with only seven countries in Africa making major investments in public transport.For public transport systems to be efficient, consideration must be given to how people travel from home to the bus/train stations and vice versa. Consequently, investments in Non-Motorised Transport NMT infrastructure must go hand in hand with public transport investments. In most instances, NMT is often not prioritised, even though significant proportions of the population in many countries walk or use bicycles. In Bolivia, a new municipal bus system in La Paz serves remote hillside neighbourhoods with three routes, with another four to follow. To further reduce emissions from transport, the government of Bolivia is offering loans to taxi and mini-van unions to purchase modern buses that run on natural gas, while diesel-powered buses are being converted to compressed natural gas as part of a national project.Singapore has a comprehensive public and non-motorized transport system with a citywide network of walking and biking paths, trains and buses. The Transport Master Plan will double the rail network by 2030 to 360km, increase the number of trains, buses and bus routes, and give buses priority on the road. In addition, the city will build 200km of sheltered walkways, add more integrated transport hubs so people can easily switch between different modes, and expand the cycling path network to over 700km in lengthCuritiba, Brazil has integrated its zoning laws and transportation planning to promote high-density development adjacent to high-capacity transportation systems. The city uses participatory city planning that emphasizes public education, discussion and agreement. As a result, 80 of Curitiba’s commuters use the bus rapid transit system to travel to work, causing a reduction of about 27 million auto trips per year. Compared to eight other Brazilian cities of similar size, Curitiba uses about 30 less fuel per capita and has one of the lowest rates of ambient air pollution in the country. There are 50 times more people using public transport now than 20 years ago; 1,100 buses make 12,500 trips every day, serving more than 1.3 million passengers.Japan’s four major islands, Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, are covered by an extensive and reliable network of railways. 72 of passenger-km in Japan is by rail, while only 13 is by motor vehicles. Globally, the country has the fourth highest distance travelled by passengers on railways in a year after India, China and the European Union. The privatised network requires few subsidies and runs extremely punctually; it is a cheaper and faster option compared to driving within major cities. NMT is also popular, and Tokyo is doubling the amount of bicycle lanes to encourage cycling; 16 of commuters already use bicycles. There is a Cycling Embassy of Japan to further promote cycling.TransJakarta is a Bus Rapid Transit BRT system in Jakarta, Indonesia. The buses run in dedicated lanes, and ticket prices are subsidized. In 2014, the buses carried 111.6 million passengers. Currently TransJakarta has the world s longest BRT system 208 km in length, with 12 primary routes and 10 cross-corridor routes, with three more corridors being added. In addition, there are 18 feeder routes that continue into the municipalities surrounding Jakarta.Industry Industrial Energy EfficiencyNo. of Countries20 80 100 1600 40 60 120 140 180Countries with incentives for energy efficiency, clean technology, pollution control, renewable energyBetween 5 and 9 USD per kg of oil equivalentMore than 9 USD per kg of oil equivalentLess than 5 USD per kg of oil equivalentClean Production IncentivesNo dataCountries with no incentivesEconomic incentives can spur investments in cleaner technologies that reduce air pollution. In many countries, energy production is one of the leading sources of air pollutants. Therefore, policies and programmes aimed at increasing energy efficiency and production from renewable sources are considered to have a direct impact on a country’s air quality. In addition, some countries are putting in place programmes and incentives to clean up existing power plants that use fossil fuels.Based on publically available data and government reports, at least 82 countries 42 out of 194 have incentives that promote investment in renewable energy production, cleaner production, energy efficiency and / or pollution control equipment. Energy efficiency is an indicator of the potential of a country’s industrial sector to impact air quality. Low energy efficiency generally indicates the use of outdated technologies which tend to emit more air pollutants.In the top figure above, the green colour indicates countries that have high industrial energy efficiency, measured as GDP per unit of energy used. Some countries in this category have taken actions to encourage investments in cleaner and efficient production. However, the green also indicates countries with limited industrial base and therefore their GDP is primarily derived from less energy intense sectors such as agriculture. However, future economic growth could lead to increased industrial activity and increased air pollution if outdated technologies are usedIn 2012, Brazil’s national emission standards were applied retroactively to older industrial facilities, including boilers, electrical turbines, oil refineries, steel mills, aluminium smelters, lead foundries, cement kilns and fertiliser factories. The Brazilian Energy Efficiency Program requires electricity producers to spend 0.5 of their net income in energy efficiency projects. Brazil has several regulatory, institutional and economic incentives to spur investments in renewable energy especially wind, solar and mini hydro.Singapore provides tax incentives to encourage the switch to cleaner, energy efficient equipment and to install pollution control equipment. In order to monitor air pollution emissions from stationary sources, there are industrial CCTV systems and telemetric in-stack continuous monitoring systems. Air quality data is updated hourly on the National Environment Agency’s website.In Sweden, potential air pollution impacts are a factor taken into account when issuing industrial permits. In addition, a sulphur tax is charged for electricity and heat production from sulphur containing fuels. The tax can be reduced if the sulphur emissions are mitigated through exhaust emission control systems.0102030405060708090100Sub regional energy efficiency GDP per unit of energy useMore than 9 USD per kg of oil equivalent Between 5 and 9 USD per kg of oil equivalentLess than 5 USD per kg of oil equivalentNo dataPercentage of countriesCompanies in Denmark are obliged to use the best available technology, and this contributed to a 26.3 improvement in energy efficiency between 1990 and 2010, and a 20.2 improvement in overall final-consumer efficiency.In South Africa, energy production from coal power plants is a leading cause of air pollution. To minimise this dependency on coal, the South African government has initiated several incentives and support schemes to encourage investments in renewable energy production, including various funds, tax allowances and deductions. Waste BurningNo. of Countries20 80 100 1600 40 60 120 140 180Waste burning is controlledWaste burning is partially controlled one type of waste is still burnt in open firesWaste burning is not controlledNo dataNo. of Countries20 80 100 1600 40 60 120 140 180Open Burning of Agricultural and/ or Municipal WasteBurning of both agricultural and municipal waste is strictly regulatedBurning of either agricultural or municipal waste is regulated but still practisedBurning of both agricultural and municipal waste is not regulated and is commonly practisedNo dataOpen burning of waste emits air pollutants that are known to have severe health impacts. An estimated 166 out of 194 countries 86 practice open burning of agricultural and / or municipal wastes, as shown in the figure above. In countries where municipal waste burning is frequently practiced, some or all waste streams are not collected by the authorities. This increases the likelihood of households burning their solid wastes on their own premises, despite regulations banning the practice. Open burning of agricultural waste is also a major driver of deteriorating air quality, both locally and regionally. Due to long range transport of these emissions, their impacts can be experienced in other regions. The green colour indicates countries were open burning of municipal waste is regulated and generally not practiced, and open burning of agricultural waste is controlled and allowed with special permits. The orange colour indicates countries where policies and regulations prohibiting open burning of municipal and or agricultural waste may exist but are not implemented or enforced, and thus open waste burning of either municipal or agricultural waste is commonly practised. The red colour indicates countries where open burning of both municipal and agricultural waste is commonly practiced. The figure above only summarizes open burning of wastes, and therefore emissions from forest and savannah fires are not included.In 2005-2006, more than 25 million hectares in Brazil were under conservation agriculture. Under conservation agriculture, crop residue from the previous harvest is left on the land rather than burned. In addition to lowering air pollution, this practice significantly improves soil quality, water conservation and harvest yields. The production of conservation agriculture equipment in Brazil has enabled the adoption of the practice. The Environment and Energy Management Agency of France aims at producing more than 100 TWh of energy from biogas annually by the year 2050. To achieve this, it plans to build at least 600 biogas plants every year to handle various waste streams. Most of the biogas produced will be injected into the national grid, and approximately a third of it will be used for electricity generation, while 20 of it will be used to produce heat. Meanwhile, on-farm and centralised biogas plants are used as a means for managing agricultural waste.In the last decade, the District of Caterina, Italy has been able to increase its waste recycling rate from 35 to over 80. The District was also the pioneer in waste separation at source, and has instituted several waste prevention policies. Among them is the “pay as you throw” policy, where the cost of waste collection varies depending on the amount of waste generated. WASTE BURNINGCountries with AAQS and air quality laws regulationsCountries with either AAQS or air quality laws regulationsCountries without AAQS and air quality laws regulationsNo dataNo. of Countries20 80 100 1600 40 60 120 140 180Countries with nationwide air quality laws/regulationsNo nationwide air quality laws or regulations / No dataAir Quality Standards Laws Regulations Countries with ambient air quality standardsCountries without ambient air quality standards / No dataNational Ambient Air Quality Standards AAQS provide a framework under which local and state policies, actions and programmes can be harmonised. 109 out of 194 countries 56 have established AAQS. However, some of these countries do not have the accompanying laws and regulations that would facilitate the implementation and enforcement of the AAQS. Only 73 countries 38 have a specific air quality policy, Act or Rules. Although 109 countries have established AAQS, not all the countries have standards for the six criterion pollutants that are considered most harmful to human and ecosystem health. These six criterion pollutants are Carbon monoxide CO, Ozone O3, Sulphur oxides SOx, Nitrogen oxides NOx, Particulate Matter PM and lead. In addition, the AAQS in some countries do not meet the WHO recommended standards.In many countries, particulate matter is regulated as PM10 particulate matter with a diameter less than 10micro meters. Several studies have indicated that PM2.5 particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micro meters is more detrimental to human health than PM10, and therefore there is a need to also regulate PM2.5 concentrations. In addition to the establishment of AAQS, air quality monitoring and modelling are important tools necessary in air quality management. In most countries, air quality monitoring is conducted sporadically, if at all. With little air quality data, it is difficult to uate the potential air quality impacts on a country from various sources, and therefore impacts can be underestimatedThe USA Clean Air Act provides the principal framework for national, state, tribal and local efforts to protect air quality, public health and welfare nationwide. The law requires the US Environmental Protection Agency EPA to establish national ambient air quality standards based on the latest science and to regulate emissions of listed toxic air pollutants. It requires states to adopt enforceable plans to achieve the standards. Penalties can be levied on states where the
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